Ormolu, an 18th-century English term, is from the French phrase or moulu, with “or” indicating gold and “moulu” being a form of an old French verb moudre, which means “to grind up.” (This French term for this technique is bronze dore.) This idea of “ground-up gold”refers to the production process of ormolu, where high-quality gold is finely powdered and added to a mercury mixture and applied to a bronze object. Modern usage often uses “ormolu” to describe any gilded object.

In reality, true ormolu pieces produced by this process are very rare. Production of ormolu declined dramatically after the first quarter of the 19th century, partly because of the great expense of the gold, but also because of the terrible health risks involved. “Mercury gilding,” the process of manufacturing ormolu, requires the application of a solution of mercury nitrate to the object (which is normally of copper, brass or bronze), and then the application of the gold/mercury amalgam, that was usually 6 to 8 parts of mercury to one part gold. In order for the gold to adhere to the surface, the coated object is placed in a kiln and exposed to extreme temperatures, which burns away the mercury. (This is similar to the technique used to produce vermeil, a form of silver-gilt.) As a result of the intense and prolonged exposure to mercury, it has been estimated that most mercury gilders died before the age of 40, and the process was banned in many countries in the mid-1800s.

True ormolu chenets (French andirons) from the Empire period attributed to Claude Galle. (p4A item # D9819758)

Evaluating Age and Authenticity of Ormolu

Evaluating the age and authenticity of ormolu mounts is one of the most difficult aspects of furniture appraisals because metal does not age in the same way as wood and because the mount’s patina has often been “enhanced” or damaged by inappropriate cleaning. Close inspection of the mounts can reveal much of their history however.

The design of eighteenth century mounts often suggests a certain exuberance and spontaneity; later nineteenth century artisans produced works more perfect in detail but with a more studied air about them. An experienced eye can also detect differences in eras or even between countries from the mount’s coloring, provided the original surface has not been disturbed. One should also take note of the size of each individual mount or sub-component. Bronze mounts of the eighteenth century, particularly furniture mountings, were cast in relatively smaller sections (usually no longer than 10 inches) and then pieced together to obtain the desired overall effect. Mounts of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tend to be much longer.

Removing a mount from the piece in question (carefully!) can give one the most unambiguous information about its age and authenticity. First consider the casting…the more irregularities present on the underside, the earlier it is likely to be. Nineteenth and twentieth century castings most often have a “cleaner” and “smoother” appearance. More clues are revealed by the mount’s gilding. Early mounts treated with the mercury gilding technique discussed above were gilded on one side only, later mounts gilded with the electrolysis method are gilded on both sides.

As with all elements of an antique item of furniture, the condition of the ormolu mounts can effect the value of the piece itself. Entirely original mounts with original surfaces will increase the piece’s value. Replacement of all or a significant proportion of the mounts may significantly reduce its value, as will inappropriate cleaning of the mounts. The loss or replacement of one or two minor elements, however, may not have much effect at all on the piece’s value, particularly if the original surface remains. Cleaning ormolu mounts is best left to experts; at the most, use no more than mild soap and water with a very soft brush.

p4A.com acknowledges the International Auctioneers Magazine, Autumn 2003, as the source for much of the information in this reference note.

“Vermeil” is a French word co-opted by the English in the 19th century for a silver gilt process. Vermeil is a combination of silver and gold, although other precious metals are also occasionally added, that is then gilded onto a sterling silver object. The reddish (vermilion) hue of the addition of the gold gives the product its name. Vermeil is commonly found in jewelry, and a standard of quality (10 karat gold) and thickness (1.5 micrometers) has been set.

Vermeil was initially created through fire or mercury gilding, a technique developed in the 18th century, which requires the application of a solution of mercury nitrate to the object and then the application of a silver and gold/mercury amalgam. In order for the gilding to adhere to the surface, the coated object is placed in a kiln and exposed to extreme temperatures, which burns away the mercury. (This is similar to the technique used to produce ormolu, a form of gold-gilt.) As a result of the intense and prolonged exposure to mercury, it has been estimated that most mercury gilders died before the age of 40. Mechanical or chemical gilding techniques were largely replaced by electroplating by the mid-19th century, and the process was banned in many countries in the mid-1800s.

The White House has a room known as the Vermeil Room, so named for a collection of vermeil tableware.

A Gorham sterling silver compote with vermeil interior – note the reddish hue. (p4A item # D9827145)

Baleen comes from a suborder of whales, Mysticeti, which includes, among others, humpback whales, gray whales, right whales and blue whales. What sets these whales apart is baleen. These whales do not have teeth, but have upper jaws filled with two rows of baleen plates fringed with fine baleen hair. These plates are so closely aligned that they act like a comb or a sieve; whales pull water across them, catching the small plankton they feed on in the baleen ‘hairs’. Baleen varies widely in size, as the sizes of the whales it comes from vary. The individual plates can be as small as 2 feet, but as large as 12 feet long! A single plate can weigh 200 pounds. Baleen is often called whalebone, which is a bit of a misnomer. Baleen is not bone, but rather keratin, the same protein that forms hair and fingernails in humans as well as horns and claws in animals.
Archaeology suggests that hunting whales was crucial to the Inuit way of life as early as 1000 A.D. In a landscape that offers so few materials, every part of a whale was used, including baleen. Because of the lack of wood for fires for boiling water, baleen was softened by soaking it in urine. Baleen had another property that made it valuable in the Arctic environment: it doesn’t not frost. As a result, it was deemed useful for all sorts of utilitarian purposes, such as fishing lines and sled runners.

A baleen sled with hide ties. (p4A item # D9763560)

Baleen’s price was closely linked to the fashion trends of England and Europe, being used for busks, pieces of a rigid material slipped into pockets in the front of a corset to keep it straight and upright. As small decorative objects that could be carved and were placed in a hidden place near the heart, busks were common sweetheart gifts, often beautifully decorated with delicate carvings. Baleen’s flexibility and durability also made it perfect for forming the hoops in hoop skirts. Baleen’s price was roughly at its highest when hoop skirts were at their widest.

Detail of the end of a scrimshaw baleen busk with delicately carved details. (p4A item # D9981258)
D9981258

A baleen basket with ivory finial carved in the shape of a diving whale’s tail. (p4A item # D9777078)

Scandal & the Story of Bakelite

Bakelite hit the market in 1907, heralding the arrival of the modern plastics industry. Bakelite was the first completely man made plastic, as until then, plastics such as celluloid, casein, and Gutta-Percha all had as a base a natural material. It was developed by Belgian-born chemist Dr. Leo Hendrick Baekeland who started his firm General Bakelite Company to produce the phenolic resin type plastic. Bakelite was inexpensive to manufacture and extremely durable, and made its inventor a wealthy man. In subsequent generations, however, the Baekeland’s family story was one of tragedy rather than triumph. In 1972 the schizophrenic great grandson of Dr. Baekeland stabbed his mother to death. Savage Grace, by Natalie Robbins and Steven M.L. Aronson, a book about the family and the murder, was a best seller when it was published in 1985.

Bakelite for Appliances & Jewelry

Early Bakelite was used almost exclusively in the manufacture of radios, appliances and electrical components because it was lightweight, inexpensive, durable, moisture-resistant and non-flammable. The limited color range of black, brown, and the occasional burgundy and dark green was appropriate for use as radio cabinets, vacuum cleaner parts, and electrical elements, but eventually, formulas were developed to produce the plastic in a range of appealing colors. Its ability to be carved and molded made it ideal for inexpensive jewelry. Early jewelry attempts to mimic more expensive materials like ivory amber, onyx, and jade, but by the 1930s, consumers began to appreciate the plastic for own qualities and Bakelite jewelry made its appearance everywhere from Sears Roebuck to Sacks 5th Avenue.

Colorful Art Deco Bakelite Gems

Artists and designers discovered the beauty and workability of Bakelite (and Catalin, a competitor who also produced a phenolic resin plastic). New technology created additional colors, and the plastic became available in scarlet, green, amber, brown burgundy, red-orange, and Kelly green and black and marbled. By 1934, yet another plastics company had produced a formula for Bakelite in pastel colors including willow green, light blue, pink and yellow. Due to the unstable nature of the chemicals used in the pastel colors formula, these pieces are hard to find, and as such, are among the most costly of Bakelite jewelry.

Bakelite Jewelry & Values

Bakelite could be molded, carved, or laminated, and designers and turned to the material for brightly colored, inexpensive flights of fancy to adorn everything from wrists to waists. Necklaces featured beads in a variety of sizes and colors, sometimes terminating in carved or laminated pendants. A popular choker style necklace consisted of pairs of bright red cherries on celluloid stems and leaves dangling from a celluloid chain (today $150-300.)

Bakelite Bracelets

Bracelets were stretchy, cuff, charm, wrap or tank-track styles. Stretchy bracelets consisted of beads or lozenges strung on elastic. Cuff styles could be wide and deeply carved, or narrower bands intended to be stacked together. The band could be smooth, molded (usually in a geometric pattern), carved, or pierced. Wrap bracelets were beads strung on wire, and tank-track bracelets featured overlapping semi-circular links. A quick check on eBay turned up bracelets on offer in prices ranging from $50-300. Deeply carved, wide red cuffs seem to fetch the highest prices, followed by amber, then green.

Bakelite Pins

A variety of pins were produced, either whimsical figurals or geometrics. The Art Deco love affair with the Scottie Dog was evident in the jewelry on offer. Horses also had a strong presence, but pins of elephants, penguins, marlins, and cherries are also available. Pins range in price from $118 for a lovely carved leaf, $130 for a carrot, $102 for a red horse head, and an almost shockingly low $18 for a classic Scottie in red.

Bakelite Jewelry Affordable (Again)!

Prices reached almost ludicrous levels in the early 1990s, and the jewelry became so popular that other Bakelite pieces such as poker chips, Tootsie Toys and Mah Jong tiles were frequently fashioned into jewelry. The market seems to have cooled, meaning that it’s once again possible to buy a fine Bakelite cuff bracelet for less than a gold one.

Reference note by p4A Contributing Editor Susan Cramer, August, 2011

Bakelite

Bakelite is named after its inventor, Belgian-born chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland (1863-1944). After emigrating to the United States in 1889, Baekeland dabbled in photography. In the late nineteenth century, photographic paper was so insensitive to light that prints had to be exposed outdoors in sunlight. Baekeland invented a more sensitive paper that he called Velox. He sold the rights to George Eastman in 1899 for a million dollars.

Now independently wealthy, Baekeland bought a farm near Yonkers, New York and set up a laboratory in the barn. He wanted to develop an insulating coating for copper wire, the kind of wire used to wind solenoids and motors. In those days wire was coated with shellac, which was laboriously made from the shells of the lacca beetle that inhabited southeast Asia. Shellac was expensive and in short supply. Could Baekeland develop a synthetic substitute?

In 1907, he prepared a mixture of phenol, formaldehyde and lye which had the color and the consistency of honey. Unexpectedly, the mixture hardened in its container, producing a solid whose surface faithfully duplicated the shape and the texture of its container.

It occurred to Baekeland that his mixture could be heated in molds to create objects of any desired shape. Thus was born Bakelite, the world’s first synthetic plastic. Baekeland founded The Bakelite Corporation to manufacture his material.

Bakelite is known by several generic names. It is referred to as phenolic because phenol (C6H5OH) is the main ingredient. Phenol is the preservative that is responsible for the “mediciney” smell of preschoolers’ paste and is the “mediciney” ingredient in antiseptic mouthwash.

It is also known as thermosetting because the chemical reaction that creates the solid actually occurs while the molding compound is being heated in the mold. Once the solid object has been formed, it cannot be softened again, unlike thermoplastics such as polystyrene that can be melted and re-used. This property makes thermosets useful for objects that might become warm, such as housings for electrical devices or even handles for kitchen pots and pans.

A Manning-Bowman coffee pot with bakelite handle, base and spigot handle. (p4A item # D9810832)

Baekeland’s competitors also made thermosets, and the word “bakelite” (small b) became a generic term denoting phenolic from any manufacturer. To further complicate things, The Bakelite Corporation later became a distributor of polystyrene, which was sold under the trade name Bakelite.

The original lump of Bakelite was a transparent amber-colored solid whose appearance Baekeland described as “frozen beer”. A few products were actually molded that color, notably ladies’ combs that were meant to simulate hand-carved tortoise shell.

Most Bakelite was made with additives that altered its appearance or mechanical properties.

Flock (short cotton threads) was often mixed with molding compound so that the threads would become embedded in the finished product. The fibers improved Bakelite’s mechanical strength, much as steel reinforcing rods strengthen concrete.

The most common appearance for a Bakelite object was opaque black, which was produced by incorporating carbon black into the molding compound. The ubiquitous black rotary-dial telephone was manufactured of black Bakelite.

A Henry Dreyfuss bakelite telephone. (p4A item # B126428)

A bakelite “bow tie” pattern bangle bracelet. (p4A item # D9769092)

Bakelite’s popularity began to decline in the 1940s as thermoplastics became more readily available. The first major thermoplastic was cellulose acetate, which was made from a byproduct of the cotton gin. Intricately-shaped objects can be fabricated by injection molding. Molten plastic is forced into a mold under high pressure, where it cools and solidifies. Since cellulose acetate was derived from an agricultural product, supply could not keep pace with the growth of demand. After World War II, polystyrene (made from petroleum) quickly became the most popular thermoplastic.

The days of manufacturing collectible jewelry from Bakelite are over, but phenolics continue to be used for applications where heat resistance is required, such as electrical equipment or cookware.

Reference note by p4A Contributing Editor Joseph H. Lechner, Ph.D.

Gustav Stickley is credited with creating the first distinctly American style of furniture known as Craftsman. He was born on March 9, 1858 in Osceola, Wisconsin to German immigrant parents. As the eldest of six children he went to work as a stonemason at the age of twelve when his father deserted the family in 1870. In 1875, Gustav (originally spelled with an “e”), Charles, and Albert Stickley learned basic furniture making skills when they were given jobs in their uncle’s chair making factory in Brandt, Pennsylvania. Five of the Stickley brothers became furniture manufacturers. While his brothers left their mark in the field it was Gustav, with his eye for design, who is universally credited as the keynote figure associated with the American Arts & Crafts movement.

By 1882 Gustav had become foreman of the factory that was manufacturing thousands of chairs per year. The three Stickley brothers left their uncle’s firm in 1884 to open the Stickley Brothers Company in Binghamton, New York, which grew rapidly and eventually included all five Stickley brothers. In 1888 Gustav, who was no longer content to make reproduction style furniture, left the family business to pursue his own interests. After a trip to England in 1897 he became inspired by the British social reformer John Ruskin and designer William Morris. The Arts & Crafts movement was initially frontiered in England but it was never as successful abroad as it was in the United States. It took the vision and discrimination of Gustav Stickley to give it breath and life. He returned to the United States in 1899 and at the age of 41 established United Crafts in Eastwood, New York and began producing a line of Arts and Crafts furniture based on the handcrafted principles of simplicity and quality. The term “Mission” furniture originated for this work because it reflected the austerity of the California missions.

A trip to the 1900 Paris Exhibition reinforced Stickley’s distaste for reproductions and underscored his philosophy that furnishings should be affordable, serviceable, and sturdy, with a focus on suitability for the home and lifestyle of the day and not imitations of a style created for another period. His choice of wood was primarily native American oak. The designs were forthright and uncomplicated with exposed joinery and upholstery of natural materials such as canvas or leather. The original finishes were typically shellacked allowing the character of the wood to stand for itself.

The philosophy of the Craftsman style was further promoted by Gustav’s publication of The Craftsman magazine in 1901 with the first issue dedicated to William Morris. The publication did much to further the popularity of the Arts and Crafts movement. It was the platform for Stickley’s Craftsman-style house designs that were based on his concept of natural materials, quietude, abundant light, and an understated style that was geared to comfort, practicality, and harmony.

In 1904 Stickley established the Craftsman Workshop in Syracuse, New York and in 1905 the editorial and executive operation was moved to New York City. Eventually Stickley’s catalogues included metalwork, pottery, lighting fixtures and textiles. Gustav Stickley was the only man to successfully create a handcrafted look made by manufacturing methods. His work was met with high acclaim and was exhibited at the prestigious Grand Rapids and Pan American International furniture expositions.

While he continued to expand his company at a rapid pace the popularity of the movement fell into decline, partially due to the approach of World War I and also because tastes shifted toward more modern and colorful designs. Stickley’s company went bankrupt in 1915 and after some unsuccessful attempts to introduce new styles he died in Syracuse, New York on April 21, 1942. Although he died a disillusioned man, he had the foresight to say, “Oak furniture that shows plainly what it is and in which the design and construction harmonize with the wood will in time become valuable and will be treasured as heirlooms in this country.”

-Reference note by p4A.com Contributing Editor Carole Deutsch.

Gustav Stickley & Fashionable Furniture for the American Middle Class

Before Arts & Crafts
The Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876 may have been a celebration of 100 years of American independence, but America was still looked to the old country for art and culture. Europe set the style for furnishings for U.S. homes and business, and consequently these were a mish-mash of reproduction styles taken from the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine periods, the Renaissance or the reign of Louis XV among others. The reproductions with which average Americans furnished their homes were of poor quality and craftsmanship, and therefore, lacking the charm of the originals.

The Beaux Arts Style
In Europe, the Beaux Arts style was flourishing and was translated into expensive objects beautifully wrought of high quality materials for the upper classes, but in America, Beaux Arts reproductions achieved a much lower level of craftsmanship, and the style never entirely caught on in this country.

The Art Nouveau Style
By the end of the 19th century, Beaux Arts had morphed into Art Nouveau in Europe, especially in France. This was a style that relied heavily on line, glorifying the sinuous forms of flowers and vines and especially the elegant grace of the female form. American designer Louis Comfort Tiffany, and architect Louis Sullivan, (both of whom had studied in France) distilled this style in their work. This was the very beginning of a distinct American style. With its emphasis on line rather than surface decoration, the way was paved for the Arts & Crafts movement.

The Arts & Crafts Movement in England
Inspired by the work of William Morris (1834-1896) and the writings of John Ruskin (1819-1900), the Arts & Crafts movement called for a return to the craftsmanship standards of medieval guilds, where talented artisans were rewarded for their work both monetarily, but also with pride in an object made beautifully by hand. Because of the hand crafted nature of these items, the construction and detailing needed to be simple to make them economically viable, and honesty in design and materials spoke to an American middle class that was more growing comfortable with its own identity and less inclined to identify with European aristocracy.

The American Arts & Crafts Movement
Americans borrowed heavily from English Arts & Crafts, but some adherents felt that the emphasis on expensive hand work limited the accessibility of objects to only the very wealthy. One such individual was Gustav Stickley, whose designs were created via a combination of hand and machine work.

Stickley and American Arts & Crafts
Gustav Stickley (1857-1942) was the eldest of eleven children, and had to leave school in 8th grade after his father abandoned the family. By 1874, he was working in his Uncle’s chair factory, where by the age of 21, he was promoted to foreman and manager. When not in the factory, Stickley continued his interrupted education in his Uncle’s library, where he became acquainted with the principles of Morris and Ruskin. After a series of only moderately successful partnerships with some of his brothers, Gustav traveled to Europe in 1898, where he saw firsthand works in the Art Nouveau and Arts & Crafts styles, meeting with their creators.

The Gustav Stickley Company
For his latest endeavor, Stickley designed a whole new line of furniture based on his European observations. His Art Nouveau line was produced on only a limited basis, but his Arts & Crafts series, which was in keeping with his preference for simple lines, was exhibited at the Grand Rapids Furniture Mart in 1900. House Beautiful magazine praised the design, referring to it as “sensible furniture”.

-Reference Note by p4A Contributing Editor Susan Cramer.

A floor model, the XIV was introduced in 1910, to fill the gap between the new tabletop X and XI models and the $200 flagship XVI. The earliest XIV models had a squarish look, with minimal decorative trim and unusual curved Queen Anne legs. These models also used gold plated hardware. The design was modernized to closely match the newly redesigned Model XVI in late 1912. The cabinet was again modernized and enlarged in 1917. Production of the Model XIV ended in 1921. The XIV was available in a variety of wood finishes, but mahogany was by far the most popular choice. The early Queen Anne model is especially sought-after by collectors today.

The original 1910 selling price of the Model XIV was $150. An estimated total of 270,000 Victrola XIV’s were produced.

The Victrola X had a production run from 1910 to 1921. It was first made as a table top phonograph and in 1912 it was made into a stand-up Victrola. The early models had a single spring motor. In October 1917 a new style double spring motor was used and the model number was changed to a X-a. It has a 12 inch turntable and was available in many differant woods and finishes. The top doors open and close to adjust the volume, while the lower doors opened for record storage. Prices ranged from $75.00 to $110.00 new.

A lidless table-top phonograph, the Victor Victrola Model VI was a slight upgrade from the base IV model, offering a 2-spring motor and slightly larger case. Production was started in October of 1911, and discontinued in 1925. Early models were available only in oak but eventually both oak and mahogany versions were produced. During the first few years of production, the VI came with a 10-inch turntable, which was soon upgraded to the full 12-inch size.

The original 1911 selling price of the VI was $25.00. An estimated total of 700,000 Victrola VI’s were produced. Some 1912 machines have an “A” suffix, some 1913 machines have “A” or “B” sufficies. An “F” suffix was used in 1915 and 1916. The VI-A designation was used in 1917 and 1918.